African EmpiresA HISTORICAL ATLAS
The evidence behind the atlas

Sources &
image credits.

History is an interpretation of evidence. Follow the references, inspect the objects, and read beyond these pages.

How to read this atlas

Numbered links beside paragraphs and visuals lead to page references. These connect original summaries to museum collections, scholarship, historical documents, and reference works. Source titles link to the materials themselves; some external sites may change or restrict access.

Modern locator maps orient the reader, not reconstruct borders. Diagram connections are simplified relationships, not measured geographic routes. Pre-1500 events provide context; post-1900 references clarify continuities. Approximate dates are marked. No historical images in this atlas were generated by AI.

Songhai

Explore history
  1. 1
    3.2 The Songhai Empire ↗

    OpenStax, Rice University · World History, Volume 2, from 1400. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 2
    Tomb of Askia ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 3
    The Empires of the Western Sudan ↗

    Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · October 2000. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 4
    Timbuktu ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 5
    Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu — exhibition ↗

    Library of Congress. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 6
    Secular Power and Religious Authority in Muslim Society: the Case of Songhay ↗

    John Hunwick · Cambridge University Press · The Journal of African History 37(2), 1996, pp. 175–194; public extract and notes consulted. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 7
    Songhai Empire ↗

    Mark Cartwright · World History Encyclopedia · 8 March 2019. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 8
    Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara — exhibition text ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art · 2020 exhibition. Accessed 2026-10-07.

Bambara

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  1. 9
    The Bamana Ségou State ↗

    Alexander Ives Bortolot · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · October 2003. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 10
    Arts of Power Associations in West Africa ↗

    Susan Elizabeth Gagliardi · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · January 2010. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 11
    Antelopes and Queens: Bambara Sculpture from the Western Sudan ↗

    Susan Elizabeth Gagliardi · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · May 2016. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 12
    Excavating Empires of the Sahel: In Conversation with Daouda Keïta ↗

    Will Fenstermaker and Isabella Garces; interview with Daouda Keïta · The Metropolitan Museum of Art / National Museum of Mali · 26 February 2020. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 13
    Travels in the Interior of Africa, Volume I ↗

    Mungo Park · Project Gutenberg; Cassell edition · 1893 edition of an account first published in 1799; observations from 1795–1797. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 14
    Travels in the Interior of Africa, Volume II ↗

    Mungo Park · Project Gutenberg; Cassell edition · 1887 edition of an account first published in 1799; observations from 1795–1797. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 15
    3.4 The Trans-Saharan Slave Trade ↗

    OpenStax, Rice University · World History, Volume 2, from 1400. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 8
    Sahel: Art and Empires on the Shores of the Sahara — exhibition text

    Shared source; full reference above.

  9. 16
    Arts of Africa — inside the exhibition ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed 2026-10-07.

Asante

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  1. 17
    Asante Kingdom ↗

    Introduction updated by Germa Seuren · African Studies Centre Leiden · Updated 2024. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 18
    Art of the Asante Kingdom ↗

    Alexander Ives Bortolot · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · October 2003. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 19
    8.3 Centralized Societies: Chiefdoms and States ↗

    OpenStax, Rice University · Introduction to Anthropology. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 20
    A history of Asante gold at the V&A ↗

    Victoria and Albert Museum · Updated 23 October 2025. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 21
    Asante Traditional Buildings ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 22
    Gold Dust Box (abamphruwa), object 1979.206.181a, b ↗

    Kristen Windmuller-Luna · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · Curatorial essay, 2016. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 23
    Geometric gold weight, object 1994.312.4 ↗

    Enid Schildkrout · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · Curatorial essay, 2025; object dated 16th–17th century. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 24
    Okyeame poma with stool, chain, and crossed swords — contextual essay ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art · Object itself dates to c. 1930s; contextual essay consulted for institutions. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  9. 25
    Unity: a collaboration between artist goldsmith Emefa Cole and the Asante royal goldsmith ↗

    Victoria and Albert Museum · Updated 29 October 2025; historical context and metalworking explanation consulted. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  10. 16
    Arts of Africa — inside the exhibition

    Shared source; full reference above.

Ethiopia

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  1. 26
    Ethiopia: A Country Study — History ↗

    Thomas P. Ofcansky and LaVerle Berry, editors · Library of Congress, Federal Research Division; reproduced by Mongabay · 1991 study / 1993 edition. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 27
    Ethiopian State Formation and the Revolutionary Origins of EPRDF Dominance ↗

    Tom Lavers · Cambridge University Press · Ethiopia’s ‘Developmental State’, 2023. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 28
    Fasil Ghebbi, Gondar Region ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 29
    African Christianity in Ethiopia ↗

    Emma George Ross · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · October 2002. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 30
    Ethiopia at the Crossroads ↗

    The Walters Art Museum · 2023–2024 exhibition. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 31
    Historicizing Urbanism: The socio-economic and cultural pattern of the city of Gondar, Ethiopia ↗

    Muluken Fikadie, Sisay Sahile, and Busha Taa · University of Gondar, Ethiopian Renaissance Journal of Social Sciences and the Humanities · 2018, volume 5, number 1; abstract consulted. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 32
    Eastern Africa, 1600–1800 A.D. ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art · October 2003. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 33
    Abyssinia Expedition ↗

    National Army Museum. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  9. 34
    The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire ↗

    Raymond Jonas · University of Washington, Department of History · 2011 book description. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  10. 35
    The making of urban economies ↗

    Oxford University Press · Politics and the Urban Frontier. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  11. 36
    The Maria Theresa Thaler in Ethiopia and Beyond ↗

    Anne Parsons, reporting a lecture by Clara Semple · The Anglo-Ethiopian Society · Summer 2006. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  12. 37
    Current land policy issues in Ethiopia ↗

    B. Nega, B. Adenew, and S. Gebre Sellasie · Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Ethiopian Economic Policy Research Institute · Land Reform, Land Settlement and Cooperatives; historical tenure overview consulted. Accessed 2026-10-07.

Swahili Coast

Explore history
  1. 38
    The People of the Swahili Coast ↗

    National Geographic Society. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 39
    Stone Towns of the Swahili Coast ↗

    Archaeology magazine, Archaeological Institute of America · January/February 2014. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 40
    3.3 The Swahili Coast ↗

    OpenStax, Rice University · World History, Volume 2: From 1400. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 41
    Ruins of Kilwa Kisiwani and Ruins of Songo Mnara ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 42
    Stone Town of Zanzibar ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 43
    Lamu Old Town ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 44
    Fort Jesus, Mombasa ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 45
    Fort Jesus Museum ↗

    National Museums of Kenya. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  9. 46
    Eastern Africa, 1600–1800 A.D. ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art · October 2003. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  10. 47
    Part 4: Slavery, the Slave Trade, Abolition, and Ironic Consequences ↗

    College Board, AP Central. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  11. 48
    Zanzibar Outlaws Slavery ↗

    Fred Strickert · EBSCO Research Starters · 2023. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  12. 49
    Slavery in Zanzibar ↗

    UK Parliament, Hansard · 11 January 1894. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  13. 50
    The making of urban economies ↗

    Oxford University Press · Politics and the Urban Frontier. Accessed 2026-10-07.

Kingdom of Kongo

Explore history
  1. 51
    Mbanza Kongo, Vestiges of the Capital of the former Kingdom of Kongo ↗

    UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 52
    Kongo Christianity: The Intersection of Two Worlds ↗

    Cécile Fromont · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · 2025. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 53
    The Visual Archive: A Historian's Perspective on Kongo and Loango Art ↗

    Kristen Windmuller-Luna and Phyllis M. Martin · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · 2015. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 54
    Kingdom of Kongo ↗

    Mark Cartwright · World History Encyclopedia · 2019. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 55
    Excerpt of letter from Nzinga Mbemba to Portuguese King João III ↗

    Afonso I (Nzinga Mbemba) · World History Commons · Primary document, 1526; modern teaching edition. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 56
    Women Leaders in African History: Dona Beatriz, Kongo Prophet ↗

    Alexander Ives Bortolot · The Metropolitan Museum of Art · 2003. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 57
    Christianity and Kongo Visual Culture ↗

    Carlos Almeida · The Metropolitan Museum of Art / University of Lisbon · 2026. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 58
    Crucifix (18th–19th century), object 1999.295.4 ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  9. 59
    Patterns without End: The Techniques and Designs of Kongo Textiles ↗

    Christine Giuntini and Susan Brown · The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum · 2015. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  10. 60
    The Kongo kingdom ↗

    Royal Museum for Central Africa. Accessed 2026-10-07.

Zulu Kingdom

Explore history
  1. 61
    Shaka Zulu ↗

    South African History Online · 2011; updated 2026. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  2. 62
    Zulu ↗

    South African History Online · 2011; updated 2026. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  3. 63
    The Mfecane: Understanding a Period of Transformation in Southern Africa ↗

    South African History Online · 2025; updated 2026. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  4. 64
    Zulu War ↗

    National Army Museum. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  5. 65
    Belt (Umutsha), 19th–20th century ↗

    The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  6. 66
    Musho! Zulu Popular Praises — publisher description and contents ↗

    Liz Gunner and Mafika Gwala, editors · Michigan State University Press / BiblioVault · 1991. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  7. 67
    The Political Structure of the Zulu Kingdom During the Reign of Cetshwayo kaMpande ↗

    J. J. Guy · University of Cape Town, eMandulo archive · 1981. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  8. 68
    Political revolution between 1820 and 1835 ↗

    South African History Online · 2017; updated 2026. Accessed 2026-10-07.

  9. 69
    The Zulu kingdom and the colony of Natal ↗

    South African History Online · 2011; updated 2026. Accessed 2026-10-07.

Visual evidence

Images & geography

  1. 70
    Natural Earth 1:110m geography and terms of use ↗

    Natural Earth · Public-domain map dataset. Accessed 2026-10-07.

The locator uses Natural Earth geography with approximate coordinates for Gao, Ségou, Kumasi, Gondar, Zanzibar, Mbanza Kongo, and Ulundi. These are orientation points selected from the historical centers described in each section. The dots are not territories or a complete inventory of settlements.

Sunlit stone facade of Bakaffa’s Palace at Fasil Ghebbi in Gondar, with tall arched doorways and crenellations.

Bakaffa’s Palace at Fasil Ghebbi

Bakaffa’s Palace at Fasil Ghebbi, Gondar, Ethiopia. A modern photograph of the imperial royal enclosure that developed after Gondar became a permanent capital in 1636; photographed 12 February 2006.

Francesco Bandarin / © UNESCO · CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO

Resized and converted to WebP; same CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO license.

Original source & rights
Kongo wooden male figure seated cross-legged, with one hand supporting his chin, wearing a carved patterned cap.

Seated Male Figure

Seated Male Figure, Kongo peoples, Kakongo group; Angola or Democratic Republic of the Congo, mid to late nineteenth century. Wood, glass, metal and kaolin. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1996.281.

Kongo artist, Kakongo group; image courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art · Public Domain (The Met Open Access)

Resized and converted to WebP.

Original source & rights
Interior of the Great Mosque at Kilwa Kisiwani, with stone pillars supporting a sequence of pointed arches and vaulted ceilings.

Great Mosque at Kilwa Kisiwani

Great Mosque, Kilwa Kisiwani, Tanzania. The surviving medieval mosque offers context for the Swahili coast’s long urban history before 1500; photograph taken 1 January 2017.

David Stanley · CC BY 2.0

Converted to WebP.

Original source & rights
Tall Bamana carved wooden ci wara headdress with two slender antelope horns and an openwork body, shown against a gray museum background.

Ci wara headdress

Ci wara headdress, Bamana numu (blacksmith), south-central Mali, nineteenth century. Wood and metal. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016.574. Such crests were worn in performances celebrating agricultural knowledge and labor.

Bamana numu (blacksmith); image courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art · Public Domain (The Met Open Access)

Resized and converted to WebP.

Original source & rights

Original timelines and relationship diagrams synthesize the sources cited beside them. Photographs and object images are resized and compressed for the web; images in their full frames appear on the history and credits pages.

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